152 Al'ternativnym resheniem bylo by zamenit' mezhdunarodnuyu sistemu gosudarstv mirovym pravitel'stvom, kotoroe moglo by siloj vvesti moratorij na opasnye tehnologii libo poistine global'noe soglashenie ob ogranichenii tehnologij. Pomimo razlichnyh prichin, po kotorym takogo trudno bylo by dostich' dazhe v mire posle kataklizma, problema tehnicheskih novshestv pri etom vovse ne obyazatel'no byla by reshena. Nauchnyj metod po-prezhnemu ostanetsya dostupnym dlya kriminal'nyh grupp, organizacij nacional'nogo osvobozhdeniya ili drugih dissidentov, i povedet k mezhdunarodnomu sorevnovaniyu tehnologij. Glava 8. Beskonechnoe nakoplenie 153 O Dojchere (Deutcher) i drugih avtorah, verivshih v budushchuyu konvergenciyu Zapada i Vostoka na osnrve socializma, sm. Alfred G. Meyer, "Theories of Convergence" v sb. pod redakciej Charles Johnson Change in Communist Systems (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1970), rr. 321 ff. 154 Termin "vysokoe massovoe potreblenie" prinadlezhit Uoltu Rostou (Walt Rostow), v The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Comunist Manifesto [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), "tehnotronnaya era" -- Zbignevu Bzhezinskomu (Zbigniew Brzezinski, v Between Two Ages: America's Role in Technetronic Era, New York: Viking Press 1970), a "postindustrial'noe obshchestvo" -- Denielu Bellu (Daniel Bell); sm. ego rabotu "Notes on the Post-Industrial Society" I I II, The Public Interest 6--7 (Winter 1967a): 24--35 M (Spring 1967b): 102-118, i ego opisanie istochnika koncepcii "postindustrial'nogo obshchestva" v The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (New York: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 33--40. 155 Bell (1967), p. 25. 156 Cifra, privedennaya v Lucian W. Pye, "Political Science and Crisis ofAuthornarianism", American Political Science Review 84, no. 1 (March 1990): 3-17. 157 Dazhe v etih starejshih otraslyah socialisticheskaya ekonomika zametno otstala ot kapitalisticheskoj v modernizacii proizvodstvennyh processov. 158 Cifry privedeny Hewlett, (1988), r. 192, 159 Arona citiruet Jeremy Azrael, Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966), p. 4. Azrael na tu zhe temu takzhe citiruet sleduyushchih avtorov: Otto Bauer, Isaac Deutscher, Herbert Marcuse, Walt Rpstow, Zbigniew Brzezinsky M Adam Ulam. sm. takzhe Alien Kassof, "The Future of Soviet Society" v sb. pod red. Kassof, Prospects for Soviet Society (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1968), p. 501. 160 Obsuzhdenie sposobov, kotorymi sovetskaya sistema prisposablivalas' k trebovaniyam rastushchej promyshlennoj zrelosti, sm. Richard Lowenthal, "The Ruling Party in a Mature Society" v sb. pod redakciej Maric G. Field Social Consequences a/Modernization in Communist Societies (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1976). 161 Azrael (1966), pp. 173-180. 162 Po otnosheniyu k Kitayu' eto otmetil Fridman v rabote Edward Friedman, "Modemization and Democratization in Leninist States: The Case of China, Studies in Comparative Communism 22, nos. 2--3 (Summer-Autumn 1989): 261--264. Glava 9. Pobeda videomagnitofona 163 Citiruetsya po Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power arid Politics:The Cultural Dimension of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 4. 164 V. I. Lenin, "Imperializm kak vysshaya stadiya kapitalizma. Populyarnyj ocherk" // V.I. Lenin. Polnoe sobr. soch. T. 27. M., 1980. S. 299-426. 165 Obzor etoj literatury sm. Ronald Chilcote, Theories of comparative Politics: The Search for a'Paradigm (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1981); James A. Capoiaso, "Dependence, Dependency and Power in the Global System: A Structural and Begavior Analysis, International Organization 32 (1978): 13--43, a takzhe "Dependency Theory: Continuities and Discontinuities in Development Studies", International Organisation 34 (1980): 605--628 i J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela, "Modernization and Dependency: alternative Perspectives in the Study of Latin American Underdevelopment", Comparative Politics 10 (July 1978): 535-557. 166 Vyvody etogo komiteta izlagalis', v chastnosti, v El Segundo Decenio de las Naciones Unidas Para el Desarollo: Aspectas Basicos del la Estrageria del Desarollo de America Latino (Lima, Peru: ECLA, 14--23 April, 1969). Rabotu Prebisha prodolzhali takie ekonomisty, kak Osvaldo Sunkel I Celso Furtado, a populyariziroval v Severnoj Amerike Andre Gunder Franh SM. Osvaldo Sunkel, "Big Business and 'Dependenda'"; Foreign Affairs 50 (April 1972): 517--531; Celso Furtadd, Economic Development of Latin America: A Survey from Colonial Times to the-Cuban Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); Andre Gander Frank, Latin America: Underdevefopmeat of Revolution (NewYork: Monthly Review Press, 1969). V tom zhe zhanre pisal Theotonio DOS Santos, "The Structure of Dependency", American Economic Review 40 (May 1980): 231-236. 167 O Prebishe sm. Walt W. Rostow, Theorists qf Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 403-407. 168 Osvaldo Sunkel i Pedro Paz, citiruetsya v Valenzuela Hnd Valenzuela (1978.), p. 544. 169 |to utverzhdenie vpervye bylo sdelano otnositel'no razvitiya Germanii v devyatnadcatom veke Torstensij Veblenom (Thorsten Veblen) v rabote Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1942). Sm. takzhe Alexander Gershenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), p, 8. 170 Nekotorye posleduyushchie teoretiki zavisimosti, priznavaya, chto na samom dele v Latinskoj Amerike obrabatyvayushchaya promyshlennost' razvivaetsya, nachinali otlichat' nebol'shoj, izolirovannyj "sovremennyj" sektor, svyazannyj s zapadnymi transnacional'nymi korporaciyami, ot tradicionnogo sektora, ch'i vozmozhnosti razvitiya podorvany pervym. Sm. Tony Smith, "The Underdevelopment of Development Literature: The Case of Dependency Theory", World Politics 31, no. 2 (July 1979): 247--285, a takzhe "Requiem or New Agenda for Third World Studies?" World Politics 37 (July 1985): 532-561; Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979); Fernanda H. Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berkley: University of California Press, 1979) i Cardoso,. "Dependent Capitalist Development in Latin American, New Left Review 74 (July-August 1972): 83--95. 171 Mnogie, no ne vse. Naprimer, Fernando Kardozo priznaval, chto "predprinimatelej, po-vidimomu, privlekaet "demokraticheskij liberalizm" tochno tak zhe, kak privlekaet prochih dejstvuyushchih lic obshchestva", i chto "pohozhe, chto sushchestvuyut strukturnye elementy, obrazovavshiesya pri formirovanii massovogo industrializovannogo obshchestva, kotorye vedut k poisku social'noj modeli, gde grazhdanskoe obshchestvo cenitsya vyshe gosudarstva". "Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case"; v rabote O'Donnell and Schmitter (1986b), p. 140. 172 V Soedinennyh SHtatah tochka zreniya teorii zavisimosti stala platformoj dlya shirokoj ataki na teoriyu modernizacii i ee pretenzii na zvanie empiricheskoj social'noj nauki. Govorya slovami odnogo iz kritikov: "gospodstvuyushchie teorii, ispol'zuemye amerikanskimi sociologami, nikak ne yavlyayutsya universal'no vernymi, kak utverzhdayut ih storonniki: oni ves'ma konkretno svyazany s ves'ma konkretnymi amerikanskimi interesami v Latinskoj Amerike, a potomu ih kuda tochnee bylo by nazvat' vyrazheniem ideologii, chem tverdoj osnovoj nauchnogo znaniya". Koncepciya, chto libo politicheskij, libo ekonomicheskij liberalizm razvitogo mira dolzhen byt' konechnoj tochkoj istoricheskogo razvitiya, podvergalas' napadkam kak vid "kul'tural'nogo imperializma", kotoryj "navyazyvaet amerikanskuyu-- ili, shire, zapadnuyu -- kul'turu drugim obshchestvam..." Sm. SusanneJ. Bodenheimer, "The Ideology of Developmentalism: American Political Science's Paradigm-Surrogate for Latin American Studies", Berkley Journal of Sociology 15 (1970): 95--137; Dean C. Tipps, "Modernization Theory and the Comparative Study of Society: A Critical Perspective", Comparative Studies of Society and History 15 (March 1973): 199-- 226. Celaya otrasl' voznikla vokrug usilij obratit' teoriyu zavisimosti obratno radi ves'ma tendencioznogo prochteniya istorii, v kotorom mir shestnadcatogo veka uzhe rassmatrivaetsya kak kapitalisticheskaya "mirovaya sistema", razdelennaya na "centr" i ekspluatiruemuyu "periferiyu". Takaya tendenciya predstavlena v rabotah Immanuila Vallershtejna (Immanuel Wallerstein), v tom chisle v The Modem World-Systems v treh tomah (New York: Academic Press, 1974 H 1980). Kritiki, ne polnost'yu neblagozhelatel'nye, chto raskryvaet ih vzglyad na hod istorii, -- Theda Skocpol, "Wallerstein World Capitalist System: A Theoretical and Historical Critique", American Journal of Sociology 82 (March 1977): 1--75--1090; i Aristide Zolberg, "Origins of the Modern World System: A Missing Link", World Politics (January 1981): 253-281. 173 |to utverzhdenie privoditsya v Rue (1985), str,4. 174 Citiruetsya tam zhe. str. 5. 175 Tam zhe. 176 Cifry vzyaty iz "Taiwan and Korea: Two Path to, Prosperity", Economist 316, no. 7663 (July 14, 1990); 19-22. 177 Odin iz pokazatelej rosta shirokogo i obrazovannogo srednego klassa-- regulyarnoe chtenie gazet--akt, kotoryj, soglasno Gegelyu, zamenit ezhednevnuyu molitvu v obshchestvah srednego klassa v konce istorii, V nastoyashchee vremya pokazatel' chteniya gazet na Tajvane i v Koree ne nizhe, chem v Soedinennyh SHtatah. Rue (1990a), r. 9. 178 Tam zhe. Tajvan' v nachale vos'midesyatyh imel nainizshij "Koefficient Dzhini" (pokazatel' ravenstva raspredeleniya dohodov) sredi vseh razvivayushchihsya stran. Sm. Gary S. Fields, "Employment, Income Distribution and Economic Growth in Seven Small Open Economies", Economic Journal 94 (March 1984); 74-83. 179 O drugih popytkah zashchitit' teoriyu zavisimosti ot aziatskoj ochevidnosti sm. Peter Evans, "Class, State and Dependence in East Asia: Lessons for Latin Americanists", I Bruce Cumings, "The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles and Political Consequenceso, obe raboty v sb. pod redakciej Frederic C. Deyo, The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 45-83, 203-226. 180 O konkurentnoj prirode uspeshnyh sektorov yaponskoj promyshlennosti sm. Michael Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (New York: Free Press, 1990), pp. 117--122. 181 |to utverzhdenie vyskazano Lorensom Garrisonom (Lawrence Harrison) v Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind; The Latin American Case (New York: Madison Books, 1985). 182 Wemer Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development, third edition (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 238--239. 183 Cifra iz issledovaniya Baransona privoditsya v Wemer Baer, "Import Substitution and Industrialization in Latin America: Experiences and Interpretations", Latin American Research Review 7, no. 1 (Spring 1972); 95--122. Mnogie ranee slaborazvitye evropejskie i aziatskie strany zashchishchali zarozhdayushchiesya otrasli promyshlennosti, no ne yasno, yavilos' li eto prichinoj ih rannego ekonomicheskogo rosta. Kak by tam ni bylo, no v Latinskoj Amerike importozameshchenie provodilos' bez vsyakogo razbora i prodolzhalos' kuda dol'she, chem eto mozhno bylo by opravdat' zashchitoj narozhdayushchihsya otraslej. 184 Po etomu povodu sm. Albert 0. Hirschmari, "The Turn to Authorittrianism in Latin America and the Search for Its Economic Determinants" v sb. pod. red. David Collier, The New Authoritarianism in Latin America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 85. 185 Ob obshchestvennom sektore v Brazilii sm. Vaeg (1989), rr. 238-273. 186 Hemando de Soto, The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), p. 134. 187 V predislovii k tomu zhe, str. XIV. 188 Citiruetsya v Hirschman (1979), str. 65. 189 Sm. Sylvia Nasar, "Third World Embracing Reforms to Encourage Economic Growth", New York Times (July 8, 1990), pp. A1, D3. Glava 10. V strane kul'tury 190 Nicshe F. Soch. v dvuh tomah. M. 1990. T. 2. S. 85. 191 Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requirements of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy" American Political Science Review 53 (1959):69--105. sm. takzhe glavu "Economic Development and Democracy" B S.M. Lipset, Politicot Man: Where, How and Why Democracy works in the Modem World. (New York: Doubleday, 1960), pp. 45-76; Phillips Cutright, "National Political Development; Its Measurement and Social Correlate", American Sociology Review 28 (1963):253--264; n Deane E. Neubauer, "Some Condition of Democracy", American Political Science Review 61 (1967: 1002--1009. 192 R. Hudson and J. R. Lewis, "Capital Accumulation: The Industrialization of Southern Europe?" v sb. pod red.Allan Williams, Southern Europe Transformed (London: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 182 Sm. takzhe Linz (1979), str. 176. |ti tempy rosta bol'she, chem za sravnimyj period u shesti ishodnyh chlenov ES ili devyati ego chlenov posle prekrashcheniya nachal'nogo rasshireniya soobshchestva. 193 Johan F. Coverdale, The Political Transformation of Spain after Franco (New York: Praeger, 1979), p. 3. 194 Linz (1979), p. 176. 195 Coverdale (1979), p.l. 196 "Taiwan and Korea: Two Path to Prosperity", Economist 316, no. 7663 (July 14, 1990), p. 19. 197 Pye (1990a), p.8 198 Soglasno odnomu istochniku, v to vremya pyatuyu chast' afrikanderskogo naseleniya mozhno bylo by nazvat' "belymi bednyakami" s takim opredeleniem: "lico, stavshee nastol'ko zavisimym po moral'nym, ekonomicheskim ili fizicheskim prichinam, chto ne mozhet bez postoronnej pomoshchi najti dlya sebya sredstva k zhizni..." Davenport (1987), r. 319. 199 V 1936 godu 41% afrikanderov prozhivali v sel'skoj mestnosti; k 1977 godu eta cifra upala do 8%, pri etom 27% ostalis' "sinimi vorotnichkami" -- rabochimi, a 65% stali "belymi vorotnichkami" -- menedzherami i specialistami. Cifry vzyaty iz Hermann Gilomee and Laurence Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building (Johannesburg: Oxford University Press, 1990), r. 120. 200 V nachale shestidesyatyh godov Piter Uaqlz ukazyval, chto Sovetskij Soyuz nachinaet obuchat' tehnokratov svoej elity na osnove funkcional'nyh, a ne ideologicheskih kriteriev, i eto v konce koncov zastavit ih ponyat' irracional'nost' i prochih aspektov ih |konomicheskoj sistemy. Sm. Political Economy of Communism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), r. 329. Moshe Lewin ukazyval na kolossal'nuyu vazhnost' urbanizacii i obrazovaniya kak bazy dlya perestrojki. Sm. The Gorbachev Phenomenon: A Historical Interpretation (Berkley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1987). 201 Kak otmechalos' v chasti pervoj, v vos'midesyatyh godah mnogie afrikanskie strany, vklyuchaya Botsvanu, pereshli K demokratii, i eshche mnogie zaplanirovali vybory organov vlasta na devyanostye. 202 Parsons (1964). rr. 355-356. 203 Est' i takoj variant etogo funkcional'nogo argumenta, chto liberal'naya demokratiya neobhodima dlya garantii pravil'noj raboty rynka. Delo a tom, chto avtoritarnyj rezhim nadziraet za rynochnoj ekonomikoj i redko pri etom gotov ne vmeshivat'sya -- u nego postoyannoe iskushenie vospol'zovat'sya vlast'yu gosudarstva v interesah rosta, spravedlivosti, nacional'noj bezopasnosti ili radi drugih politicheskih celej, imya kotorym legion. I tol'ko nalichie politicheskogo "rynka", mozhno bylo by skazat', predotvratit ne nuzhnoe vmeshatel'stvo gosudarstva v ekonomiku blagodarya reakcii i soprotivleniyu nemudroj gosudarstvennoj poligiki. Takoj argument privodit Mario Vargas L'osa ude Soto (1989), str. HVIII-HIH. 204 Nechto podobnoe proishodilo v Sovetskom Soyuze v shestidesyatyh -- Semidesyatyh godah, kogda partiya do nekotoroj stepeni stala men'she rulevym, napravlyayushchim kurs ekonomicheskogo razvitiya sverhu, i bol'she tretejskim sud'ej, posrednikom mezhdu interesami razlichnyh sektorov, ministerstv i predpriyatij. Partiya mogla diktovat' na ideologicheskoj osnove, chto sel'skoe hozyajstvo dolzhno byt' kollektivizirovano, a ministerstva -- rabotat' po centralizovannomu planu, no ideologiya malo mozhet pomoch' v razreshenii konflikta, skazhem, dvuh otraslej himicheskoj promyshlennosti, konkuriruyushchih za investicionnyj resurs. Utverzhdenie, chto sovetskaya partiya, gosudarstvo igrala rol' posrednika v institucional'nyh interesah, ne podrazumevaet, chto sushchestvovala nastoyashchaya demokratiya ili chto partiya v drugih oblastyah zhizni obshchestva ne pravila zheleznoj rukoj. 205 O vzglyadah, vozlagayushchih vinu za ushcherb prirode na kapitalizm, sm. Marshal Goldman, The Spoils of Progress: Environmental Pollution In the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972). Obzory ekologicheskih problem v Sovetskom Soyuze i Vostochnoj Evrope sm. Joan Debardleben, The Environment and Marxism-Leninism: The Soviet and East German Ezperience (Boulder, Colo. Westview, 1985); i B. Komarov, The Destruction of Nature in the USSR (London: M.E. Sharpe, 1980). 206 Sm. "Eastern Europe Faces Vast Environmental Blight", Washington Post (March 30, 1990), r. A1; "Czechoslovakia Tackles the Environment, Government Says a Third of the Country is Ecologically Devastated" Christian Science Monitor (June 21, 1990), r. 5. 207 Rassuzhdeniya na eti temy sm. Richard Lowenthal "The Ruling Party in a Mature Society" v Field (1976), r. 107. 208 |ta tochka zreniya soderzhitsya vo mnogih analizah v rabotah O'Donnel, Schmitter, Przewrski, opublikovannyh v tomah transcription from Authoritarian Rule pod redakciej O'Donnel, Schmitter (1986a, 1986b. 1986s, 1986d). 209 Odnako v etoj literature po bol'shej chasti obsuzhdaetsya, kak obrazovanie podgotavlivaet lyudej k demokratii i pomogaet ee konsolidirovat', a ne ob®yasnyaetsya, pochemu obrazovanie dolzhno predraspolagat' lyudej k demokratii. Sm., naprimer, Bryce (1531), rr, 70--79. 210 V razvityh stranah navernyaka mozhno najti polubezrabotnyh obladatelej uchenoj stepeni, kotorye zarabatyvayut men'she stroitel'nyh podryadchikov s diplomom srednej shkoly, no v celom sushchestvuet tesnaya korrelyaciya mezhdu dohodom i obrazovaniem. 211 |to utverzhdenie privodit David Apter v The politics of Modernization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). 212 |to utverzhdenie prinadlezhit Hantingtonu (Huntington, 1968), str. 134--137. Ob ekonomicheskih posledstviyah togo, chto amerikancy "rozhdayutsya ravnymi", sm. Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York; Harcourt Brace, 1955). 213 Isklyucheniem iz etogo obobshcheniya yavlyaetsya vozniknovenie bol'shoj ispanoyazychnoj populyacii na amerikanskom yugo-zapade, kotoraya otlichaetsya ot prezhnih etnicheskih grupp razmerom i otnositel'no maloj stepen'yu lingvisticheskoj assimilyacii. 214 Analogichnaya situaciya sushchestvuet v Sovetskom Soyuze; no zdes' vmesto staryh obshchestvennyh klassov, ostavshihsya ot feodalizma, sushchestvuet "novyj klass" Partijnyh chinovnikov i nomenklaturnyh rukovoditelej, okruzhennyh privilegiyami i vlast'yu. Kak latifundisty Latinskoj Ameriki, svoyu tradicionnuyu vlast' oni mogut ispol'zovat', chtoby iskazit' elektoral'nye processy v svoyu pol'zu. |tot klass obrazuet neodolimoe prepyatstvie na puti kak kapitalizma, tak i demokratii, i, chtoby tot ili drugaya mogli vozniknut', vlast' etogo klassa dolzhna byt' unichtozhena. 215 Diktatury kak takovoj yavno nedostatochno, chtoby provesti v zhizn' egalitarnye reformy. Ferdinand Markoe ispol'zoval vlast' gosudarstva dlya nagrazhdeniya svoih lichnyh druzej, beredya tem samym sushchestvuyushchee social'noe neravenstvo. No moderniziruyushchaya diktatura, napravlennaya na dostizhenie ekonomicheskoj effektivnosti, v teorii mogla by vypolnit' glubokie preobrazovaniya filippinskogo obshchestva za kuda bolee korotkij otrezok vremeni, chem demokratiya. 216 Cynthia McClintock, "Peru: Precarious Regimes, Authoritarian and Democratic", Larrz Diamond, Juan Linzt and Sezmour Martin Lipset, Democracz in Devolpment Countres, vol. 4, Latin America (Boulder, Reiner, 1988b), rr. 353--358. 217 CHastichno prichinoj etogo yavilos' to, chto bol'shaya chast' otobrannogo u prezhnih oligarhov byla peredana v neeffektivnyj gosudarstvennyj sektora kotoryj vyros ot 13% do 23% VVP, poka voennye byli u vlasti. 218 Interv'yu Andronika Migranyana i Igorya Klyamkina v "Literaturnoj gazete" (16 avgusta 1989 goda; a takzhe "Dolgaya doroga k evropejskomu domu", "Novyj mir", No7 iyul' 1989): 166-184. 219 Analogichnoe utverzhdenie vyskazal Daniel H. Levine v svoej kritike knig O'Donnela i SHmittera po povodu perehoda ot avtoritarizma. Ochen' trudno predstavit' sebe vozniknovenie demokratii v kakoj by to ni bylo forme, tem bolee ee konsolidaciyu i stabilizaciyu tam, gde nikto ne verit v demokraticheskuyu legitimnost' radi nee samoj. Sm. "Paradigm Lost Dependence to Democracy", World Politics 40, no. 3 (April 1988): 377-394. 220 Obshirnaya argumentaciya za prevoshodstvo avtoritarnyh rezhimov v osushchestvlenii rannej industrializacii privoditsya u Gershenkrona (1962). Svyaz' mezhdu absolyutizmom i ekonomicheskim rostom v YAponii posle '1968 goda ustanovlena Koji Taira, "Japan's Modern Economic Growth: Capitalist Devolpment under Absolutism", v sbornike pod redakciej Harry Wray, Hilary Conroy, Japan Examined: Perspectives on Modern Japanese History (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983), rr. 34-41 221 Cifry privedeny v rabote: Samuel P. Huntington and Jorge I. Dominguez, "Political devolpment" v sb. pod redakciej Fred I. Grinston, Nelson Polsby, Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley,1975), r.61. Glava 11. Otvet na prezhnij vopros 222 I Siriya, i Irak ob®yavlyayut sebya v nekotorom smysle socialisticheskimi, hotya eto zayavlenie bolee otrazhaet mezhdunarodnuyu modu togo vremeni, kogda eti rezhimy prishli k vlasti, chem real'nuyu sut' ih pravleniya. Mnogie vozrazyat protiv popytki klassificirovat' eti stol' razlichnye strany kak "totalitarnye", uchityvaya ogranichennost' gosudarstvennogo kontrolya v kazhdoj iz nih; navernoe, luchshim terminom byl by "neudavshijsya" ili "neumelyj" totalitarizm, chto, odnako, ne umen'shaet surovosti rezhima. 223 Vse davno zametili, chto kommunizm pobedil sperva ne v razvitoj strane s bol'shimi massami promyshlennogo proletariata vrode Germanii, kak predskazyval Marks, a v poluindustrializovannoj i poluzapadnoj Rossii, a potom v Kitae, pochti polnost'yu krest'yanskom i sel'skohozyajstvennom. Obzor popytok kommunistov szhit'sya s etoj real'nost'yu sm, Stuart Schram and Helene Carrere-D'Encosse, Marxism and Asia (London: Allen Lane, 1969). 224 Sm. walt Rostow, The Stages of Economoc Growth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1960), rr. 162--163. 225 |to zamechanie sdelal Cvetan Todorov (Tsvetan Todorov) v obzore raboty Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust v The New Republic (March, 1990): 30--33. Todorov pravil'no ukazyvaet, chto nacistskuyu Germaniyu nel'zya brat' kak primer sovremennogo; ona soderzhala kak sovremennye, tak i antisovremennye elementy, i poslednie do nekotoroj stepeni ob®yasnyayut, pochemu stal vozmozhnym Holokost. 226 Sm., naprimer, klassicheskie raboty vrode Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany (Garden City, N.Y.: Doble-day, 1969) i Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair (Berkley: University of California Press, 1961). Poslednyaya --prostezhivaet nekotorye nacistskie motivy do nostal'gii po organichesko dudoindustrjal'nomu .obshchestvu i shirokogo nedovol'stva atomiziruyushchimi i otchuzhdayushchimi svojstvami ekojomicheskoj sovremennosti. Parallel'nym primerom mozhet sluzhit' Iran pod vlast'yu Homejni: posle Vtoroj mirovoj vojny Iran proshel cherez krajne bystryj period ekonomicheskogo rosta, polnost'yu narushivshij tradicionnye obshchestvennye otnosheniya i kul'tural'nye normy. Fundamentalistskij SHiizm, podobno fashizmu, mozhno schitat' Nostal'gicheskoj popytkoj vosstanovit' v kakoj-to forme doindustrial'noe obshchestvo novymi i radikal'no inymi sredstvami. 227 Revel (1989-1990), rr. 99-103. Glava 12. Net demokratii bez demokratov 228 K. Marks i O. |ngel's. Soch. 2-e izd. M. 1960, T. 23. S. 33. 229 Dva isklyucheniya sostavlyayut aziatskie rynochno orientirovannye avtoritarnye gosudarstva, k kotorym my vernemsya v chasti chetvertoj, i'islamskij fundamentalizm. 230 S istoricheskoj tochki zreniya nel'zya utverzhdat' prevoshodstvo odnoj formy "oproverzheniya" nad drugoj; v chastnosti, net osnovanij govorit', chto gosudarstvo, vyzhivayushchee za schet bol'shej ekonomicheskoj konkurentosposobnosti, kakim-to obrazom "legitimnee" togo, kotoroe vyzhivaet za schet voennoj moshchi. 231 |to utverzhdenie i sravnenie mirovoj istorii s dialogom, sdelannoe Kozhevym, privoditsya v Strauss (1963), rr. 178-179. 232 Po etomu povodu sm. Steven B. Smith, Hegel's Critique of Liberalism: Rights in Context (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), r. 225. 233 Utverzhdalos', chto matriarhal'nye obshchestva sushchestvovali kogda-to v Sredizemnomor'e, no byli v opredelennuyu istoricheskuyu epohu smeteny patriarhal'nymi. Sm., naprimer, Maija Gimbutas, Language of the Goddess (New York: Harper and Row, 1989). 234 Takoj podhod, odnako, ne lishen sobstvennyh problem. Vo-pervyh i v glavnyh, voznikaet vopros, otkuda ishodit trans-istoricheskoe ponimanie cheloveka. Esli my ne dolzhny priznat' v kachestve rukovodstva religioznoe otkrovenie, to standart dolzhen byt' osnovan na kakoj-to forme chastnogo filosofskogo otrazheniya. Sokrat eto delal, nablyudaya za drugimi lyud'mi i vstupaya e nimi v dialog. My, zhivushchie posle Sokrata, mozhem vstupat' v analogichnye dialogi s velikimi myslitelyami proshlyh vremen, glubzhe vsego ponimavshimi vozmozhnosti chelovecheskoj prirody. Libo zhe mozhno zaglyadyvat' gluboko v dushu samim sebe, chtoby ponyat' istinnye istochniki chelovecheskoj motivacii, kak postupal Russo i neischislimoe kolichestvo pisatelej i hudozhnikov. Sejchas v oblasti matematiki i (v men'shej stepeni) v estestvennyh naukah chastnoe razmyshlenie mozhet dat' mezhsub®ektivnoe soglashenie o prirode istiny, v forme "yasnyh i otchetlivyh idej" Dekarta. Nikomu ne pridet v golovu idti na rynke iskat' reshenie slozhnogo uravneniya v chastnyh proizvodnyh; mozhno obratit'sya k matematiku, vernoe reshenie kotorogo budet odobreno drugimi matematikami. No v oblasti gumanitarnoj net "yasnyh i otchetlivyh idej", net i obshchego soglasiya o prirode cheloveka, ili o spravedlivosti, ili o chelovecheskom udovletvorenii, ili o .luchshem rezhime, kotoryj iz etogo vyvoditsya. Lichnosti mogut schitat', chto u nih est' "yasnye i otchetlivye idei" po etim voprosam, no tak zhe postupayut man'yaki i bezumcy, a granica mezhdu nimi ne vsegda otchetliva. Tot fakt, chto nekij filosof mog ubedit' krug posledovatelej v "ochevidnosti" svoih idej, mozhet garantirovat', chto etot filosof -- ne bezumec, no ne zashchishchaet gruppu ot nekotorogo aristokraticheskogo predubezhdeniya. Sm. Alexandre Kojeve, "Tyranny and Wisdom" (1963), rr. 164--165. 235 V pis'me Kozhevu ot 22 avgusta 1948 goda Leo SHtrause zamechaet, chto dazhe v gegel'yanskoj sisteme Kozheva filosofiya prirody vse eshche "nezamenima". On sprashivaet: "Kak eshche mozhet byt' ob®yasnena... unikal'nost' istoricheskogo processa? On obyazan byt' unikal'nym, tol'ko esli mozhet byt' tol'ko odna "zemlya" na konechnom protyazhenii beskonechnogo vremeni... Krome togo, pochemu ne dolzhna edinstvennaya, vremennaya, konechnaya zemlya byt' podverzhena kataklizmam (kazhdye 100000000 let) s polnym ili chastichnym povtoreniem istoricheskogo processa? Zdes' mozhet pomoch' lish' teleologicheskaya koncepciya prirody cheloveka". Citiruetsya po Leo Strauss, On Tyranny, izdanie pererabotannoe i dopolnennoe pod redakciej Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 237. Sm. takzhe Michael Roth, Knowing and History; Appropriations of Hegel in Twentieth Century France (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988), rr. 126-127. 236 Kant (1963), r. 13--17. Kant opisyvaet Prirodu kak obladayushchee sobstvennoj volej dejstvuyushchee nachalo, vneshnee po otnosheniyu k lyudyam; no my mozhem, ponimat' eto kak metaforu togo aspekta chelovecheskoj natury, kotoryj potenciala no sushchestvuet vo vseh lyudyah, no realizuetsya tol'ko v hode ih obshchestvennogo i istoricheskogo vzaimodejstviya. Glava 13. V nachale, ili Smertel'naya bitva radi vsego lish' prestizha 237 Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind, 1967. R. 233. 238 Kozhev (1947), str. 14. 239 Po voprosu o tom, v kakom otnoshenii Kozhev nahoditsya k podlinnomu Gegelyu, sm. Michael S. Roth, „A Proble of Recognition: Alexander Kojeve and the End of History", History and Theory 24, no. 3 (1985); 203-306. 240 Ob interpretacii gegelevskoj bor'by za priznanie u Kozheva sm. Roth (1988), rr. 98-99 i Smith (1981). rr. 116-117. 241 |to utverzhdenie sdelano Smitom (Smith) (1989a), r. 115. Sm. takzhe Steven Smith, "Hegel's Critique of Liberalism", American Political Science Review 80, no. 1 (March, 1986): 121--139. 242 David Riesman v The Lonely Crowd (New haven: Yale University Press, 1950) pol'zuetsya terminom "orientirovannye na drugih" (other-directed) dlya oboznacheniya kachestva, v kotorom my videli polzuchij konformizm amerikanskogo poslevoennogo obshchestva; i eto kachestvo on protivopostavlyal "orientirovannosti na sebya" (inner-directedness) amerikancev devyatnadcatogo veka. Po Gegelyu, ni odin chelovek ne mozhet byt' po-nastoyashchemu "orientirovan na sebya"; chelovek dazhe ne mozhet stat' chelovekom bez vzaimodejstviya s drugimi lyud'mi i priznaniya s ih storony. To, chto Rizman opisyvaet kak "orientirovannost' na sebya", na samom dele okazyvaetsya skrytoj formoj "orientirovannosti na drugih". Naprimer, yavnaya samodostatochnost' lyudej ves'ma religioznyh na samom dele osnovana na ustranennoj kogda-to "orientirovannosti na drugih", potomu chto chelovek sam sozdaet religioznye standarty i ob®ekty svoej predannosti. 243 Sm. takzhe Fridrih Nicshe, "K genealogii morali" // F. Nicshe. Soch. v dvuh tomah T. 2. M., 1990. S. 439--471. 244 Primer sovremennogo neponimaniya teh chelovecheskih motivov, chto lezhali v osnove dueli, sm. John Muller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolence of Major War (New York: Basik Books, 1989), rr. 9-11. 245 Gobbs T. "Leviafan" // Gobbs T. Izbr. proizv. v 2 tomah. T. 2. M., 1965. c. 231. 246 |ta formulirovka voshodit k Russo v "Obshchestvennom dogovore", gde govoritsya "l'impulsion du seul appetite est esclavage" Ouvres complutes, vol. 3 (Paris: Gallimard, 1964), p. 365. Sam Russo ispol'zuet slovo "svoboda" kak v gobbsovskom, tak i v gegelevskom smysle. S odnoj storony, v Second Discourse on govorit o cheloveke v estestvennom sostoyanii, svobodnom sledovat' svoim prirodnym instinktam, takim kak potrebnost' v ede, samke i otdyhe; s drugoj storony, tol'ko chto procitirovannaya fraza ukazyvaet na chuvstvo avtora, chto "metafizicheskaya" svoboda trebuet osvobozhdeniya ot strastej i potrebnostej. Ego rassuzhdeniya o chelovecheskoj sposobnosti k sovershenstvu vpolne sovpadayut s gegelevskim ponimaniem istoricheskogo processa kak processa samosozdaniya svobodnogo cheloveka. 247 Tochnee, v pervom variante "Obshchestvennogo dogovora" Russo govorit: "dans la constitution de l'homme l'action de l'ame sur le corps est l'abyme de la philosophie". Rousseau (1964, vol. 3, p. 296 Glava 14. Pervyj chelovek 248 Gobbs T. "Leviafan" // Gobbs T. Izbr. proizv. v 2 tomah. T. 2. M., 1965. S. 118. 249 V otlichie ot estestvennogo sostoyaniya Gobbsa krovavaya bitva opisana kak nekotoraya harakteristika polozheniya del v real'nyj istoricheskij moment (tochnee, v nachal'noj tochke istorii). 250 Kursiv nash. Gobbs T. "Leviafan" // Gobbs T. Izbr. proizv. v 2 tomah. M., 1965. T. 2. S. 152. 251 Gobbs T. "O grazhdanine" //Tam. zhe. T. 1. S, 289. 252 Sm. pis'mo Kozheva k Leo SHtraussu ot 2 noyabrya 1936 goda, gde on zaklyuchaet: "Gobbs ne smog ocenit' znacheniya truda i potomu nedoocenivaet znacheniya bor'by ("tshcheslaviya"). Po Gegelyu, trudyashchijsya rab realizuet: 1) Ideyu svobody; 2) Aktualizaciyu etoj idei v bor'be. Takim obrazom, iznachal'no "chelovek" vsegda ili gospodin, ili rab; "chelovek polnost'yu" v "konce" istorii est' rab i gospodin (to est' i tot, i drugoj -- i odnovremenno ni tot, ni drugoj). I tol'ko eto mozhet udovletvorit' ego "tshcheslavie"". Kursiv originala. Citiruetsya v Leo Strauss, izdanie pererabotannoe i dopolnennoe pod redakciej Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth (New York: Free Press, 1991), r. 233. 253 Sravnenie Gobbsa i Gegelya provoditsya v Leo Strauss, The Political Philosophy of Hobbs (Chicago Press, 1952), rr. 57--58. V primechanii SHtrause ob®yasnyaet, chto "G-n Aleksandr Kozhevnikov i avtor namerevayutsya predprinyat' detal'noe issledovanie svyazi mezhdu Gegelem i Gobbsom", -- proekt, k sozhaleniyu, tak i ne zavershennyj. 254 Soglasno Gobbsu, "radost', voznikayushchaya u cheloveka iz predstavleniya o sobstvennoj sile i sposobnosti, set' to dushevnoe likovanie, kotoroe nazyvaetsya slovoj; prichem esli ona osnovana u cheloveka na opyte ego prezhnih deyanij, to ona sovpadaet s veroj v svoi sobstvennye sily; esli zhe eto predstavlenie osnovano na lesti drugih ili zhe predpolagaetsya im samim radi udovol'stviya, svyazannogo s takim predstavleniem, to eto nazyvaetsya tshcheslaviem, kakovoe imya yavlyaetsya vpolne podhodyashchim, tak kak vpolneobosnovannaya vera v sobstvennye sily porozhdaet popytku k dejstviyu, mezhdu tem kak predpolozhenie o svoih silah ne porozhdaet takovoj ya poetomu vpolne pravil'no nazyvaetsya tshchetnym" (Gobbs T. "Leviafan" // Gobbs T; Izbr. proizv. v dvuh tomah. M., 1965. T. 2. S. 90--91 -- Kursiv v orig.). 255 Sm. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), rr. 187--188. 256 Gobbs odnim iz pervyh sredi filosofov postuliroval princip ravenstva lyudej na osnove, otlichnoj ot hristianskoj. Soglasno emu, lyudi byli fundamental'no ravny drug drugu v sposobnosti drug druga ubivat'; chelovek fizicheski bolee slabyj mog vse zhe vzyat' verh nad protivnikom za schet hitrosti ili ob®edineniya v shajku s drugimi. Universalizm sovremennogo liberal'nogo gosudarstva i liberal'nyh prav cheloveka poetomu iznachal'no postroen na postulirovannoj universal'nosti straha pered nasil'stvennoj smert'yu. 257 SHtrause zamechaet, chto Gobbs vnachale voshvalyal aristokraticheskuyu doblest' i chto lish' na bolee pozdnem etape svoej deyatel'nosti on zamenil aristokraticheskuyu gordost' v kachestve pervichnogo moral'nogo faktora strahom nasil'stvennoj smerti. Sm. Strauss (1952), chap. 4. 258 Kursiv v originale. Po etomu voprosu sm. Strauss (1952), r. 13. 259 Koncepciya molchalivogo soglasiya ne:tak nelepa, kak eto kazhetsya na pervyj vzglyad. Grazhdane staroj i ustanovivshejsya liberal'noj demokratii mogut, naprimer, golosovat' na vyborah rukovoditelej, no obychno ih nikogda ne prizyvayut utverzhdat' bazovye polozheniya konstitucii. Otkuda my znaem, chto oni odobryayut eti polozheniya? Ochevidno, iz togo fakta, chto oni ostayutsya v strane, po sobstvennoj vole i. uchastvuyut v sushchestvuyushchih politicheskih processah (ili hotya by ne protestuyut). 260 K sformulirovannomu Gobbsom pravom na samosohranenie Lokk dobavlyaet eshche odno fundamentalnoe chelovecheskoe pravo -- pravo na sobstvennost'. Pravo na sobstvennost' yavlyaetsya proizvodnym ot prava na samosohranenie: esli u cheloveka est' pravo na zhizn', to u nego est' prava i na neobhodimye dlya etoj zhizni sredstva, naprimer, na edu, odezhdu, dom, zemlyu i t.p. Sozdanie grazhdanskogo obshchestva ne tol'ko meshaet gordym ubivat' drug druga, no i pozvolyaet lyudyam zashchitit' estestvennuyu sobstvennost', kotoroj oni vladeli v estestvennom sostoyanii, i mirno ee narashchivat'. Prevrashchenie estestvennoj sobstvennosti v uslovnuyu sobstvennost', to est' sobstvennost', sankcionirovannuyu obshchestvennym dogovorom mezhdu ee vladel'cami, vedet k ves'ma fundamental'nym izmeneniyam v zhizni cheloveka. |to tak, potomu chto do grazhdanskogo obshchestva styazhatel'stvo cheloveka bylo ogranicheno, soglasno Lokku, tem, chto on mog dobyt' sobstvennym trudom dlya svoego potrebleniya, esli eto imushchestvo ne portilos'. No grazhdanskoe obshchestvo est' predposylka osvobozhdeniya styazhatel'stva; chelovek mozhet nakaplivat' ne tol'ko to, chto emu nuzhno, no vse, chto zahochet, bez ogranicheniya. Lokk ob®yasnyaet, chto istochnik vsyakoj cennosti (my by teper' skazali -- "ekonomicheskoj" cennosti) est' chelovecheskij trud, kotoryj umnozhaet cennost' "pochti brosovyh materialov" prirody v sotni raz. V otlichie ot estestvennogo sostoyaniya, gde nakoplenie bogatstva moglo idti za schet drugogo, v grazhdanskom obshchestve stremlenie k neogranichennomu bogatstvu vozmozhno i razresheno, poskol'ku besprecedentnaya proizvoditel'nost' truda vedet k obogashcheniyu vseh. Ono vozmozhno i razresheno v tom sluchae, esli grazhdanskoe obshchestvo zashchishchaet interesy "predpriimchivyh i racional'nyh" ot "zadiristyh i svarlivyh". Sm. Lokk...; Abram N. Shulsky, "The Concept of Property in the History of Political Economy" v sb. pod redakciej James Nichols and Colin Wright From Political Economy to Economics... and Back? (San Francisco: Institut for Contemporary Studies Press, 1990), rr. 15--34; i Strauss (1953), rr. 235-246. 261 Obzor kritiki po literature o klassicheskom respublikanizme i amerikanskom Osnovanii sm. Thomas Pangle, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1988) rr. 28--39. 262 Dovol'no mnogie ser'eznye amerikanskie uchenye zamechali, chto Lokk otvodit gorazdo bol'she mesta gordosti, chem chasto dumayut. Nesomnenno, Lokk pytaetsya umerit' gordost' despoticheskih i agressivnyh, zastavit' ih sledovat' svoemu racional'nomu interesu. Odnako Natan Tarkov ukazyval, chto v "Nekotoryh myslyah po povodu obrazovaniya" Lokk pooshchryaet lyudej gordit'sya svobodoj i prezirat' rabstvo; zhizn' i svoboda stanovyatsya sami po sebe celyami, potencial'no dostojnymi dazhe togo, chtoby pozhertvovat' za nih zhizn'yu, a ne prosto sredstvami zashchity sobstvennosti. Poetomu patriotizm svobodnogo cheloveka v svobodnoj strane mozhet sosushchestvovat' s zhelaniem komfortabel'nogo samosohraneniya, kak, pohozhe, eto istoricheski proizoshlo v Soedinennyh SHtatah. Hotya yasno, chto Lokk (pust' eto chasto za nim ne priznaetsya, kak i za Medisonom i Gamil'tonom), inogda stavit vo glavu ugla priznanie, mne vse zhe kazhetsya, chto Lokk tverdo stoit na drugoj storone velikogo eticheskogo razdela v svoem predpochtenij samosohraneniya -- gordosti. Dazhe esli pri vnimatel'nom chtenii ego trudov po obrazovaniyu proyavitsya "gordyj" Lokk, neyasno, oslabit li eto vser'ez tu pervichnost', kotoruyu Lokk pridaet samosohraneniyu v Second Treatise. Sm. Nathan Tarcov, Locke's Educations for Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), v osobennosti str. 5--8 i 209--211; Tarcov, "The Spirit of Liberty and Early American Foreign policy", v Zuckert (1988), rr.136--138. Sm. takzhe Pangle (1988), rr. 194, 227 i Harvey C. Mansfield, Taming the Prince: The Ambivalence of Modern Executive Power (New York: Free Press, 1989), rr. 204-211. 263 Potencial'naya nesovmestimost' kapitalizma i semejnoj zhizni obsuzhdaetsya v Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper Brothers, 1950), rr. 157--160. Glava 15. Otpusk v Bolgarii 264 Platon. Soch. v 3 tomah. T. 3, ch. 1. M., 1971. S. 165-166. Citiruetsya "Odisseya" Gomera, XI, 489--491. 265 V zapadnoj filosofskoj tradicii sushchestvuet ochen' malo sistematicheskih issledovanij, fenomena timosa, ili priznaniya, nesmotrya na ego vazhnost' dlya etoj tradicii. Odna popytka -- eto sbornik pod reda